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Controller Area Network (CAN) is a robust serial bus designed for board to board communication in noisy environments such as automobile and industrial control systems. MultiCAN developed by Infineon improves upon previous CAN implementations by adding features such as additional CAN nodes, more message objects linked list management of message objects and support for TTCAN level 2. The XC85x-Series is a new member of XC800 family dedicated for CAN applications by integrating a MultiCAN controller which support CAN (V2.0B). The on chip CAN module reduces the CPU load by performing most of the functions required by the networking protocol (masking, filtering and buffering of CAN frames).
Although we have previously investigated prediction error to FM in subcortical areas (Tabas et al. 2021b), whether FM is encoded as prediction error in the human AC is still unclear. Previous studies considered prediction error to FM in the human cerebral cortex and yielded mixed results: Some reported an MMN to deviating FM-stimuli, suggesting that FM is also encoded as prediction error (Cornella et al. 2013; Hsieh and Yeh 2021; Kung et al. 2020); others reported enhanced neural responses to repeated FM-stimuli, concluding that different predictive coding strategies underlie the encoding of pure tones and FM (Altmann et al. 2011; Heinemann et al. 2011; Heinemann et al. 2010; Okamoto and Kakigi 2017). This different encoding strategy might arise from the fact that, while pure tones are first encoded in the basilar membrane (Malmierca and Hackett 2010), FM selectivity is present only in the auditory midbrain, thalamus, and cortex (Altmann and Gaese 2014; Geis and Borst 2013; Hall et al. 2000; Hart et al. 2003; Issa et al. 2017; Lui and Mendelson 2003; Paltoglou et al. 2011). Studying whether FM is encoded as prediction error specifically in AC might shed light on these divergences.
Our results are the first robust evidence for prediction error encoding of FM in human AC. In line with our results, SSA to FM direction was reported in A1 of rats (Klein et al. 2014). Results from the human literature are more difficult to reconcile with our findings. Three previous studies reported a significant MMN to deviating FM-sweeps (Cornella et al. 2013; Hsieh and Yeh 2021; Kung et al. 2020), but since they did not localize the source of the potentials, it remained unclear to what extent these responses were generated in the AC. One further study investigated sources in the AC but reported no significant results (Altmann et al. 2011). Three other studies reported increasing neuromagnetic responses to repeated FM-sweeps (Heinemann et al. 2011; Heinemann et al. 2010; Okamoto and Kakigi 2017), in direct contradiction with predictive coding. One of these studies (Okamoto and Kakigi 2017) reported the effect specifically in the AC. The short ISIs used in some of these latter studies (e.g. 200 and 100 ms in Heinemann et al. 2010 and Heinemann et al. 2011, respectively) might have contributed to the contradictory results: different temporal integration mechanisms might apply to stimulus sequences spanning shorter or longer time scales.
Until recently, it was unclear whether predictions from generative model units inform prediction errors only at the immediate lower stage of the processing hierarchy or also at subsequently lower stages (see Tabas et al. 2021a for a review of the empirical evidence on both standpoints). MMN studies showed that prediction error is elicited with respect to high-level expectations; namely by the violation of complex statistical regularities (see Paavilainen 2013 for review), the omission of expected sounds (Bendixen et al. 2009; Chennu et al. 2016; Wacongne et al. 2011), and abstract expectations about the occurrence of deviating sounds (Wacongne et al. 2011). However, since the generators of the MMN are partly located in the frontal cortex (Paavilainen 2013), MMN research cannot clarify whether subjective expectations are used to compute prediction errors at lower levels of the auditory processing hierarchy.
Our study did not tackle the question of where SSA and prediction errors are first generated. Since auditory cortical areas receive direct bottom-up input from the auditory thalamus (Schofield 2011), SSA and prediction error signals in AC could reflect ascending input from prediction error units in subcortical structures (Tabas et al. 2021b; Tabas et al. 2020). Conversely, subcortical SSA and prediction error signals might as well be inherited from cerebral cortex areas via corticofugal modulation (Malmierca 2015). Animal studies have shown that SSA in secondary auditory midbrain and thalamus persists under deactivation of the AC (Anderson and Malmierca 2013; Antunes and Malmierca 2011), but not in the primary auditory thalamus, where SSA is the weakest (Bäuerle et al. 2011). This suggests that subcortical SSA cannot be entirely inherited from the AC. Further work is needed to clarify the interplay of bottom-up and top-down signaling in the computation of prediction error. 2b1af7f3a8